The prevalence and risk factors of screen-based disordered eating among university students: a global systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression

Omar A Alhaj 1, Feten Fekih-Romdhane 2 3, Dima H Sweidan 1, Zahra Saif 4, Mina F Khudhair 5, Hadeel Ghazzawi 6, Mohammed Sh Nadar 7, Saad S Alhajeri 8, Michael P Levine 9, Haitham Jahrami 10 11

Affiliations

01 December 2022

-

doi: 10.1007/s40519-022-01452-0

Abstract

Purpose: The purpose of this review was to estimate the prevalence of screen-based disordered eating (SBDE) and several potential risk factors in university undergraduate students around the world.

Methods: An electronic search of nine data bases was conducted from the inception of the databases until 1st October 2021. Disordered eating was defined as the percentage of students scoring at or above established cut-offs on validated screening measures. Global data were also analyzed by country, research measure, and culture. Other confounders in this review were age, BMI, and sex.

Results: Using random-effects meta-analysis, the mean estimate of the distribution of effects for the prevalence of SBDE among university students (K = 105, N = 145,629) was [95% CI] = 19.7% [17.9%; 21.6%], I2 = 98.2%, Cochran's Q p value = 0.001. Bayesian meta-analysis produced an estimate of 0.24, 95% credible intervals [0.20, 0.30], τ = 92%. Whether the country in which the students were studying was Western or non-Western did not moderate these effects, but as either the mean BMI of the sample or the percentage of the sample that was female increased, the prevalence of SBDE increased.

Conclusions: These findings support previous studies indicating that many undergraduate students are struggling with disordered eating or a diagnosable eating disorder, but are neither receiver effective prevention nor accessing accurate diagnosis and available treatment. It is particularly important to develop ever more valid ways of identifying students with high levels of disordered eating and offering them original or culturally appropriate and effective prevention or early treatment.

Level of evidence: I, systematic review and meta-analysis.

Keywords: Adolescences; Body image; Body mass index; Eating disorders; Feeding and eating disorders.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors have not disclosed any competing interests.

Figures

Fig. 1 PRISMA 2020 flow diagram for study selection

Fig. 1 PRISMA 2020 flow diagram for study selection

Fig. 2 Summary plot of the assessment of the risk of bias

Fig. 2 Summary plot of the assessment of the risk of bias

Fig. 3 Traffic light plot of the assessment of the risk of bias

Fig. 3 Traffic light plot of the assessment of the risk of bias

Similar articles

The prevalence of feeding and eating disorders symptomology in medical students: an updated systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression.

Fekih-Romdhane F, Daher-Nashif S, Alhuwailah AH, Al Gahtani HMS, Hubail SA, Shuwiekh HAM, Khudhair MF, Alhaj OA, Bragazzi NL, Jahrami H.Eat Weight Disord. 2022 Aug;27(6):1991-2010. doi: 10.1007/s40519-021-01351-w. Epub 2022 Jan 24.PMID: 35067859 Free PMC article. Review.

Prevalence of Exercise Addiction Symptomology and Disordered Eating in Australian Students Studying Nutrition and Dietetics.

Rocks T, Pelly F, Slater G, Martin LA.J Acad Nutr Diet. 2017 Oct;117(10):1628-1636. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2017.04.001. Epub 2017 May 25.PMID: 28551315

Comparison of Factors Associated with Disordered Eating between Male and Female Malaysian University Students.

Chin YS, Appukutty M, Kagawa M, Gan WY, Wong JE, Poh BK, Mohd Shariff Z, Mohd Taib MN.Nutrients. 2020 Jan 25;12(2):318. doi: 10.3390/nu12020318.PMID: 31991785 Free PMC article.

Students with Food Insecurity Are More Likely to Screen Positive for an Eating Disorder at a Large, Public University in the Midwest.

Barry MR, Sonneville KR, Leung CW.J Acad Nutr Diet. 2021 Jun;121(6):1115-1124. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2021.01.025. Epub 2021 Mar 24.PMID: 33773946 Free PMC article.

The relationship between risk of eating disorders, age, gender and body mass index in medical students: a meta-regression.

Jahrami H, Saif Z, Faris MA, Levine MP.Eat Weight Disord. 2019 Apr;24(2):169-177. doi: 10.1007/s40519-018-0618-7. Epub 2018 Nov 14.PMID: 30430465 Review.

Cited by

The global prevalence of screen-based disordered eating and associated risk factors among high school students: systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression.

Ghazzawi HA, Nimer LS, Sweidan DH, Alhaj OA, Abulawi D, Amawi AT, Levine MP, Jahrami H.J Eat Disord. 2023 Aug 3;11(1):128. doi: 10.1186/s40337-023-00849-1.PMID: 37537604 Free PMC article. Review.

The Preventable Effect of Taekwondo Sport among Cadets and Junior' Bone Mineral Density: DEXA Assessment.

Ghazzawi HA, Amawi AT, Alduraidi H, Juweid M, Alhawari HH, Al-Abbadi MA, Alabbadi AM, AlNemer LSS.Children (Basel). 2023 Jan 15;10(1):170. doi: 10.3390/children10010170.PMID: 36670720 Free PMC article.

The Prevalence of "at Risk" Eating Disorders among Athletes in Jordan.

Ghazzawi HA, Alhaj OA, Nemer LS, Amawi AT, Trabelsi K, Jahrami HA.Sports (Basel). 2022 Nov 18;10(11):182. doi: 10.3390/sports10110182.PMID: 36422951 Free PMC article.

KMEL References

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

References

  1.  
    1. Frank GKW, Shott ME, DeGuzman MC. The neurobiology of eating disorders. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2019;28(4):629–640. doi: 10.1016/j.chc.2019.05.007. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  2.  
    1. Pop-Jordanova N, Zorcec T, Demerdzieva A. anoreXia: anorMaL PHoBia of norMaL weiGHt. Prilozi. 2017;38(2):45–53. doi: 10.1515/prilozi-2017-0021. - DOI - PubMed
  3.  
    1. WHO (2007) International classification of diseases and related health problems, 10th revision. World Health Organization
  4.  
    1. APA, Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. Vol. 5. 2013: American psychiatric association Washington, DC
  5.  
    1. Santomauro DF, et al. The hidden burden of eating disorders: an extension of estimates from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet Psychiatry. 2021;8(4):320–328. doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00040-7. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  6.  
    1. Kutz AM, et al. Eating disorder screening: a systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic test characteristics of the SCOFF. J Gen Intern Med. 2020;35(3):885–893. doi: 10.1007/s11606-019-05478-6. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  7.  
    1. Mealha V, et al. Students of dietetics & nutrition; a high risk group for eating disorders? Nutr Hosp. 2013;28(5):1558–1566. - PubMed
  8.  
    1. Galmiche M, et al. Prevalence of eating disorders over the 2000–2018 period: a systematic literature review. Am J Clin Nutr. 2019;109(5):1402–1413. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqy342. - DOI - PubMed
  9.  
    1. Qian J, et al. An update on the prevalence of eating disorders in the general population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eat Weight Disord. 2022;27(2):415–428. doi: 10.1007/s40519-021-01162-z. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  10.  
    1. Levine MP, Smolak L. The prevention of eating problems and eating disorders: Theory, research, and practice. Psychology Press; 2006.
  11.  
    1. Levine M, Smolak L. The role of protective factors in the prevention of negative body image and disordered eating. Eat Disord. 2015;24:1–8. - PubMed
  12.  
    1. Levine MP, Smolak L (2021) The prevention of eating problems and eating disorders: Theories, research, and applications, 2nd ed. In: The prevention of eating problems and eating disorders: Theories, research, and applications, 2nd edn. New York, NY, US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group. xiii, 459-xiii, 459
  13.  
    1. Hoek HW, van Hoeken D. Review of the prevalence and incidence of eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord. 2003;34(4):383–396. doi: 10.1002/eat.10222. - DOI - PubMed
  14.  
    1. Alfalahi M, et al. Prevalence of eating disorders and disordered eating in Western Asia: a systematic review and meta-Analysis. Eat Disord. 2021 doi: 10.1080/10640266.2021.1969495. - DOI - PubMed
  15.  
    1. Bornioli A, et al. Adolescent body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: predictors of later risky health behaviours. Soc Sci Med. 2019;238:112458. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112458. - DOI - PubMed
  16.  
    1. Crow S, et al. Psychosocial and behavioral correlates of dieting among overweight and non-overweight adolescents. J Adolesc Health. 2006;38(5):569–574. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.05.019. - DOI - PubMed
  17.  
    1. Rush CC, Curry JF, Looney JG. Alcohol expectancies and drinking behaviors among college students with disordered eating. J Am Coll Health. 2016;64(3):195–204. doi: 10.1080/07448481.2015.1107837. - DOI - PubMed
  18.  
    1. Landi F, et al. Anorexia of aging: risk factors, consequences, and potential treatments. Nutrients. 2016;8(2):69. doi: 10.3390/nu8020069. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  19.  
    1. Latzer Y, et al. Childhood maltreatment in patients with binge eating disorder with and without night eating syndrome vs. control. Psychiatry Res. 2020;293:113451. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113451. - DOI - PubMed
  20.  
    1. Solmi M, et al. Age at onset of mental disorders worldwide: large-scale meta-analysis of 192 epidemiological studies. Mol Psychiatry. 2021;27(1):281–295. doi: 10.1038/s41380-021-01161-7. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  21.  
    1. Stice E, Maxfield J, Wells T. Adverse effects of social pressure to be thin on young women: an experimental investigation of the effects of "fat talk". Int J Eat Disord. 2003;34(1):108–117. doi: 10.1002/eat.10171. - DOI - PubMed
  22.  
    1. Aparicio-Martinez P, et al. Social media, thin-ideal, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating attitudes: an exploratory analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(21):4177. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16214177. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  23.  
    1. Smolak L, Levine MP (1996) Adolescent transitions and the development of eating problems. In: The developmental psychopathology of eating disorders: Implications for research, prevention, and treatment. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. pp 207–233
  24.  
    1. Mahoney CR, et al. Intake of caffeine from all sources and reasons for use by college students. Clin Nutr. 2019;38(2):668–675. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2018.04.004. - DOI - PubMed
  25.  
    1. Jahrami H, et al. Intake of caffeine and its association with physical and mental health status among university students in Bahrain. Foods. 2020;9(4):473. doi: 10.3390/foods9040473. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  26.  
    1. Narayanan A, et al. Students’ use of caffeine, alcohol, dietary supplements, and illegal substances for improving academic performance in a New Zealand university. Health Psychol Behav Med. 2021;9(1):917–932. doi: 10.1080/21642850.2021.1990763. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  27.  
    1. Nagata JM, et al. Associations between ergogenic supplement use and eating behaviors among university students. Eat Disord. 2021;29(6):599–615. doi: 10.1080/10640266.2020.1712637. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  28.  
    1. Burnette CB, Simpson CC, Mazzeo SE. Relation of BMI and weight suppression to eating pathology in undergraduates. Eat Behav. 2018;30:16–21. doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2018.05.003. - DOI - PubMed
  29.  
    1. Makino M, Tsuboi K, Dennerstein L. Prevalence of eating disorders: a comparison of Western and non-Western countries. MedGenMed. 2004;6(3):49. - PMC - PubMed
  30.  
    1. Farchakh Y, Hallit S, Soufia M. Association between orthorexia nervosa, eating attitudes and anxiety among medical students in Lebanese universities: results of a cross-sectional study. Eat Weight Disord. 2019;24(4):683–691. doi: 10.1007/s40519-019-00724-6. - DOI - PubMed
  31.  
    1. Fekih-Romdhane F, et al. The prevalence of feeding and eating disorders symptomology in medical students: an updated systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Eat Weight Disord. 2022;27(6):1991–2010. doi: 10.1007/s40519-021-01351-w. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  32.  
    1. Jahrami H, et al. Eating disorders risk among medical students: a global systematic review and meta-analysis. Eat Weight Disord. 2019;24(3):397–410. doi: 10.1007/s40519-018-0516-z. - DOI - PubMed
  33.  
    1. Jahrami H, et al. The relationship between risk of eating disorders, age, gender and body mass index in medical students: a meta-regression. Eat Weight Disord. 2019;24(2):169–177. doi: 10.1007/s40519-018-0618-7. - DOI - PubMed
  34.  
    1. Page MJ, The PRISMA, et al. Statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2020;2021:372. - PMC - PubMed
  35.  
    1. Stroup DF, et al. Meta-analysis of observational studies in epidemiology: a proposal for reporting. JAMA. 2000;283(15):2008–2012. doi: 10.1001/jama.283.15.2008. - DOI - PubMed
  36.  
    1. Conn VS, et al. Grey literature in meta-analyses. Nurs Res. 2003;52(4):256–261. doi: 10.1097/00006199-200307000-00008. - DOI - PubMed
  37.  
    1. Ata RN, Schaefer LM, Thompson JK (2015) Sociocultural theories of eating disorders. In: The Wiley Handbook of Eating Disorders, Wiley, West Sussex, UK, pp 269–282. 10.1002/9781118574089.ch21
  38.  
    1. Gordon RA. Eating disorders: anatomy of a social epidemic. 2. Malden: Blackwell Publishing; 2000. p. 281.
  39.  
    1. Haddaway N, McGuinness L, Pritchard C (2021) PRISMA2020: R package and ShinyApp for producing PRISMA 2020 compliant flow diagrams (Version 0.0. 2)
  40.  
    1. van de Schoot R, et al. An open source machine learning framework for efficient and transparent systematic reviews. Nat Mach Intell. 2021;3(2):125–133. doi: 10.1038/s42256-020-00287-7. - DOI
  41.  
    1. Rathbone J, Hoffmann T, Glasziou P. Faster title and abstract screening? Evaluating Abstrackr, a semi-automated online screening program for systematic reviewers. Syst Rev. 2015;4(1):1–7. doi: 10.1186/s13643-015-0067-6. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  42.  
    1. PLOTCON. WebPlotDigitizer. 2017 [cited July 20, 2021; Available from: https://automeris.io/WebPlotDigitizer/
  43.  
    1. UN. 2022; Available from: https://www.un.org/dgacm/en/content/regional-groups
  44.  
    1. Luchini C, et al. Assessing the quality of studies in meta-analyses: advantages and limitations of the Newcastle Ottawa Scale. World J Meta-Anal. 2017;5:80–84. doi: 10.13105/wjma.v5.i4.80. - DOI
  45.  
    1. Shuster JJ. Empirical vs natural weighting in random effects meta-analysis. Stat Med. 2010;29(12):1259–1265. doi: 10.1002/sim.3607. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  46.  
    1. Borenstein M, et al. A basic introduction to fixed-effect and random-effects models for meta-analysis. Res Synth Methods. 2010;1(2):97–111. doi: 10.1002/jrsm.12. - DOI - PubMed
  47.  
    1. Jackson D, White IR, Thompson SG. Extending DerSimonian and Laird's methodology to perform multivariate random effects meta-analyses. Stat Med. 2010;29(12):1282–1297. doi: 10.1002/sim.3602. - DOI - PubMed
  48.  
    1. Lewis S, Clarke M. Forest plots: trying to see the wood and the trees. BMJ. 2001;322(7300):1479–1480. doi: 10.1136/bmj.322.7300.1479. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  49.  
    1. Rücker G, Schwarzer G. Beyond the forest plot: the drapery plot. Res Synth Methods. 2021;12(1):13–19. doi: 10.1002/jrsm.1410. - DOI - PubMed
  50.  
    1. van Aert RC, Wicherts JM, van Assen MA. Conducting meta-analyses based on p values: reservations and recommendations for applying p-uniform and p-curve. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2016;11(5):713–729. doi: 10.1177/1745691616650874. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  51.  
    1. Sutton AJ, Abrams KR. Bayesian methods in meta-analysis and evidence synthesis. Stat Methods Med Res. 2001;10(4):277–303. doi: 10.1177/096228020101000404. - DOI - PubMed
  52.  
    1. Higgins JP, Thompson SG. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat Med. 2002;21(11):1539–1558. doi: 10.1002/sim.1186. - DOI - PubMed
  53.  
    1. NAND. Eating Disorder Statistics. 2022; Available from: https://anad.org/eating-disorders-statistics/
  54.  
    1. van Eeden AE, van Hoeken D, Hoek HW. Incidence, prevalence and mortality of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2021;34(6):515–524. doi: 10.1097/YCO.0000000000000739. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  55.  
    1. Spiegelhalter DJ. Incorporating Bayesian ideas into health-care evaluation. Stat Sci. 2004;19(1):156–174. doi: 10.1214/088342304000000080. - DOI
  56.  
    1. Lunn D, et al. Fully Bayesian hierarchical modelling in two stages, with application to meta-analysis. J Roy Stat Soc: Ser C (Appl Stat) 2013;62(4):551–572. - PMC - PubMed
  57.  
    1. Bolstad WM, Curran JM. Introduction to Bayesian statistics. John Wiley & Sons; 2016.
  58.  
    1. Huedo-Medina TB, et al. Assessing heterogeneity in meta-analysis: Q statistic or I2 index? Psychol Methods. 2006;11(2):193. doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.11.2.193. - DOI - PubMed
  59.  
    1. Lin L, Chu H, Hodges JS. Alternative measures of between-study heterogeneity in meta-analysis: reducing the impact of outlying studies. Biometrics. 2017;73(1):156–166. doi: 10.1111/biom.12543. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  60.  
    1. Galbraith RF. Some applications of radial plots. J Am Stat Assoc. 1994;89(428):1232–1242. doi: 10.1080/01621459.1994.10476864. - DOI
  61.  
    1. Galbraith R. Graphical display of estimates having differing standard errors. Technometrics. 1988;30(3):271–281. doi: 10.1080/00401706.1988.10488400. - DOI
  62.  
    1. Galbraith R. A note on graphical presentation of estimated odds ratios from several clinical trials. Stat Med. 1988;7(8):889–894. doi: 10.1002/sim.4780070807. - DOI - PubMed
  63.  
    1. Viechtbauer W, Cheung MW. Outlier and influence diagnostics for meta-analysis. Res Synth Methods. 2010;1(2):112–125. doi: 10.1002/jrsm.11. - DOI - PubMed
  64.  
    1. Patsopoulos NA, Evangelou E, Ioannidis JP. Sensitivity of between-study heterogeneity in meta-analysis: proposed metrics and empirical evaluation. Int J Epidemiol. 2008;37(5):1148–1157. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyn065. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  65.  
    1. Mathur MB, VanderWeele TJ. Sensitivity analysis for publication bias in meta-analyses. J Roy Stat Soc: Ser C (Appl Stat) 2020;69(5):1091–1119. - PMC - PubMed
  66.  
    1. Egger M, et al. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ. 1997;315(7109):629–634. doi: 10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  67.  
    1. Duval S, Tweedie R. A nonparametric, "Trim and Fill" method of accounting for publication bias in meta-analysis. J Am Stat Assoc. 2000;95(449):89–98.
  68.  
    1. Peters JL, et al. Assessing publication bias in meta-analyses in the presence of between-study heterogeneity. J R Stat Soc. 2010;173(3):575–591. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-985X.2009.00629.x. - DOI
  69.  
    1. Sedgwick P. Meta-analyses: heterogeneity and subgroup analysis. BMJ. 2013;346:f4040. doi: 10.1136/bmj.f4040. - DOI
  70.  
    1. Thompson SG, Higgins JP. How should meta-regression analyses be undertaken and interpreted? Stat Med. 2002;21(11):1559–1573. doi: 10.1002/sim.1187. - DOI - PubMed
  71.  
    1. Open Science Collaboration Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science. 2015;349(6251):aac4716. doi: 10.1126/science.aac4716. - DOI - PubMed
  72.  
    1. R. 4.1.1. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. 2021 2020 05/05/2020]; Available from: https://www.R-project.org/
  73.  
    1. Schwarzer G, Schwarzer MG (2012) Package ‘meta’. The R foundation for statistical computing, p 9
  74.  
    1. Viechtbauer W. Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. J Stat Softw. 2010;36(3):1–48. doi: 10.18637/jss.v036.i03. - DOI
  75.  
    1. Roever C, Friede T, Roever MC (2017) Package ‘bayesmeta’
  76.  
    1. McGuinness LA, Higgins JP. Risk-of-bias VISualization (robvis): an R package and Shiny web app for visualizing risk-of-bias assessments. Res Synth Methods. 2021;12(1):55–61. doi: 10.1002/jrsm.1411. - DOI - PubMed
  77.  
    1. Abdul Manaf N, Saravanan C, Zuhrah B. The prevalence and inter-relationship of negative body image perception, depression and susceptibility to eating disorders among female medical undergraduate students. J Clin Diagn Res. 2016;10(3):01. - PMC - PubMed
  78.  
    1. Abo Ali EA, Shehata WM. Eating disorder risk among medical students at Tanta University, Egypt. Egyptian J Commun Med. 2020;38(4):17. doi: 10.21608/ejcm.2020.119410. - DOI
  79.  
    1. Akdevelioglu Y, Gümüs H. Eating disorders and body image perception among university students. Pak J Nutr. 2010;9(12):1187–1191. doi: 10.3923/pjn.2010.1187.1191. - DOI
  80.  
    1. Al Banna MH, et al. Prevalence and determinants of eating disorder risk among Bangladeshi public university students: a cross-sectional study. Health Psychol Res. 2021;9(1):24837. doi: 10.52965/001c.24837. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  81.  
    1. Albrahim T, et al. The spectrum of disordered eating attitudes among female university students: a cross-sectional study. Curr Res Nutr Food Sci J. 2019;7(3):698–707. doi: 10.12944/CRNFSJ.7.3.10. - DOI
  82.  
    1. Alcaraz-Ibáñez M, Sicilia A, Paterna A. Exploring the differentiated relationship between appearance and fitness-related social anxiety and the risk of eating disorders and depression in young adults. Scand J Psychol. 2019;60(6):569–576. doi: 10.1111/sjop.12584. - DOI - PubMed
  83.  
    1. Alhazmi AH, Al Johani A. Prevalence and associated factors of eating disorders among students in Taiba University, Saudi Arabia: a cross-sectional study. Malaysian J Public Health Med. 2019;19(1):172–176. doi: 10.37268/mjphm/vol.19/no.1/art.80. - DOI
  84.  
    1. Alkazemi D, et al. Distorted weight perception correlates with disordered eating attitudes in Kuwaiti college women. Int J Eat Disord. 2018;51(5):449–458. doi: 10.1002/eat.22852. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  85.  
    1. AlShebali M, AlHadi A, Waller G. The impact of ongoing westernization on eating disorders and body image dissatisfaction in a sample of undergraduate Saudi women. Eat Weight Disord. 2021;26(6):1835–1844. doi: 10.1007/s40519-020-01028-w. - DOI - PubMed
  86.  
    1. Alwosaifer AM, et al. Eating disorders and associated risk factors among Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal university preparatory year female students in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J. 2018;39(9):910. doi: 10.15537/smj.2018.9.23314. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  87.  
    1. Azzouzi N, et al. Eating disorders among Moroccan medical students: cognition and behavior. Psychol Res Behav Manag. 2019;12:129. doi: 10.2147/PRBM.S165114. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  88.  
    1. Badrasawi MM, Zidan SJ. Binge eating symptoms prevalence and relationship with psychosocial factors among female undergraduate students at Palestine Polytechnic University: a cross-sectional study. J Eat Disord. 2019;7(1):1–8. doi: 10.1186/s40337-019-0263-1. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  89.  
    1. Barayan S, Al-Yousif Z, Sabra A. Prevalence of eating disorders among female university medical students in Dammam, Saudi Arabia. Int J Med Health Sci. 2018;7(3):107–112.
  90.  
    1. Barry MR, Sonneville KR, Leung CW. Students with food insecurity are more likely to screen positive for an eating disorder at a large, public university in the midwest. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2021;121(6):1115–1124. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2021.01.025. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  91.  
    1. Benítez A, et al. Analysis of the risk of suffering eating disorders in young student university of extremadura (Spain) Enfermería Global. 2018;54:124–133.
  92.  
    1. Bizri M, et al. Prevalence of eating disorders among medical students in a Lebanese medical school: a cross-sectional study. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2020;16:1879. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S266241. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  93.  
    1. Bo S, et al. University courses, eating problems and muscle dysmorphia: are there any associations? J Transl Med. 2014;12(1):1–8. doi: 10.1186/s12967-014-0221-2. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  94.  
    1. Bosi M, et al. Body image and eating behavior among medical students: eating disorders among medical students. Epidemiology (Sunnyvale) 2016;6(4):256.
  95.  
    1. Brumboiu MI, et al. Nutritional status and eating disorders among medical students from the Cluj-Napoca University centre. Clujul Medical. 2018;91(4):414. - PMC - PubMed
  96.  
    1. Carriedo AP, et al. When clean eating isn’t as faultless: the dangerous obsession with healthy eating and the relationship between Orthorexia nervosa and eating disorders in Mexican University students. J Eat Disord. 2020;8(1):1–12. - PMC - PubMed
  97.  
    1. Castejón MÁ, Berengüí R. Personality differences and psychological variables related to the risk of eating disorders. Anales de Psicología. 2020;36(1):64.
  98.  
    1. Chammas R, et al. Eating disorders among university students in a Middle Eastern urban setting: who is at risk? Clin Nutr. 2017;36:S113–S114. doi: 10.1016/S0261-5614(17)30467-3. - DOI
  99.  
    1. Chan YL, et al. Eating disorder among Malaysian University students and its associated factors. Asia Pacific J Public Health. 2020;32(6–7):334–339. doi: 10.1177/1010539520947879. - DOI - PubMed
  100.  
    1. Chaudhari B et al (2017) The relationship of eating disorders risk with body mass index, body image and self-esteem among medical students. Ann Med Health Sci Res 7(3):144–149
  101.  
    1. Christensen KA, et al. Food insecurity associated with elevated eating disorder symptoms, impairment, and eating disorder diagnoses in an American University student sample before and during the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. Int J Eating Disord. 2021;54(7):1213–1223. doi: 10.1002/eat.23517. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  102.  
    1. Compte EJ, Sepulveda AR, Torrente F. A two-stage epidemiological study of eating disorders and muscle dysmorphia in male university students in Buenos Aires. Int J Eat Disord. 2015;48(8):1092–1101. doi: 10.1002/eat.22448. - DOI - PubMed
  103.  
    1. Damiri B, et al. Eating disorders and the use of cognitive enhancers and psychostimulants among university students: a cross-sectional study. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2021;17:1633. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S308598. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  104.  
    1. Din ZU, et al. Tendency towards eating disorders and associated sex-specific risk factors among university students. Arch Neuropsychiatry. 2019;56(4):258. - PMC - PubMed
  105.  
    1. Ebrahim M, et al. Disordered eating attitudes correlate with body dissatisfaction among Kuwaiti male college students. J Eat Disord. 2019;7(1):1–13. doi: 10.1186/s40337-019-0265-z. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  106.  
    1. Erol Ö, Özer A. Determination of orthorexia nervosa symptoms and eating attitudes in medicine students. Eur J Public Health. 2019;29(Suppl 4):280.
  107.  
    1. Falvey SE, et al. Diagnosis of eating disorders among college students: a comparison of military and civilian students. Mil Med. 2021;186:975–983. doi: 10.1093/milmed/usab084. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  108.  
    1. Fatima W, Fatima R, Anwar NS. Prevalence of eating disorders among female college students of Northern Broader University, Arar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Int J Child Health Nutr. 2018;7(3):115–121. doi: 10.6000/1929-4247.2018.07.03.4. - DOI
  109.  
    1. Gramaglia C, et al. Orthorexia nervosa, eating patterns and personality traits: a cross-cultural comparison of Italian, Polish and Spanish university students. BMC Psychiatry. 2019;19(1):1–11. doi: 10.1186/s12888-019-2208-2. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  110.  
    1. Greenleaf C, et al. Female collegiate athletes: prevalence of eating disorders and disordered eating behaviors. J Am Coll Health. 2009;57(5):489–496. doi: 10.3200/JACH.57.5.489-496. - DOI - PubMed
  111.  
    1. Havemann L, et al. Disordered eating and menstrual patterns in female university netball players. South African J Sports Med. 2011;23(3):68–72. doi: 10.17159/2078-516X/2011/v23i3a328. - DOI
  112.  
    1. Herzog DB, et al. Eating disorders and social maladjustment in female medical students. J Nervous Mental Dis. 1985;173(12):734–737. doi: 10.1097/00005053-198512000-00004. - DOI - PubMed
  113.  
    1. Iyer S, Shriraam V. Prevalence of eating disorders and its associated risk factors in students of a Medical College Hospital in South India. Cureus. 2021;13(1):e12926. - PMC - PubMed
  114.  
    1. Jamali YA, et al. Prevalence of eating disorders among students of Quest University, Nawabshah, Pakistan. Merit Res J Med Med Sci. 2020;8(4):81–84.
  115.  
    1. Jennings PS, et al. Acculturation and eating disorders in Asian and Caucasian Australian university students. Eat Behav. 2006;7(3):214–219. doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2005.08.006. - DOI - PubMed
  116.  
    1. Joja O, von Wietersheim J. A cross-cultural comparison between EDI results of Romanian and German students. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2012;33:1037–1041. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.01.280. - DOI
  117.  
    1. Kiss-Tóth E, et al. Eating disorder in university students: an international multi-institutional study. Eur J Public Health. 2018 doi: 10.1093/eurpub/cky214.010. - DOI
  118.  
    1. Ko N, et al. Disordered eating behaviors in university students in Hanoi, Vietnam. J Eat Disord. 2015;3(1):1–7. doi: 10.1186/s40337-015-0054-2. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  119.  
    1. Koushiou M, Nikolaou P, Karekla M. Prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in greek-cypriot adolescents and young adults. Eur J Counsel Psychol. 2020;8(1):3–18. doi: 10.5964/ejcop.v8i1.170. - DOI
  120.  
    1. Kutlu R, Civi S. Evaluation of eating habits, body perception and depression status of university students. Gülhane Tip Dergisi. 2013;55(3):196.
  121.  
    1. Ladner J, et al. Eating disorders among university students: a public health challenge. An European study. Eur J Public Health. 2019 doi: 10.1093/eurpub/ckz186.486. - DOI
  122.  
    1. Le Grange D, Telch CF, Tibbs J. Eating attitudes and behaviors in 1,435 South African Caucasian and non-Caucasian college students. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155(2):250–254. doi: 10.1176/ajp.155.2.250. - DOI - PubMed
  123.  
    1. Lee SJ, Cloninger CR, Chae H. Cloninger's temperament and character traits in medical students of Korea with problem eating behaviors. Compr Psychiatry. 2015;59:98–106. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2015.02.006. - DOI - PubMed
  124.  
    1. Liao Y, et al. Changes in eating attitudes, eating disorders and body weight in Chinese medical university students. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2013;59(6):578–585. doi: 10.1177/0020764012445862. - DOI - PubMed
  125.  
    1. Mancilla-Diaz JM, et al. A two-stage epidemiologic study on prevalence of eating disorders in female university students in Mexico. Eur Eating Disord Rev. 2007;15(6):463–470. doi: 10.1002/erv.796. - DOI - PubMed
  126.  
    1. Marciano D, McSherry J, Kraus A. Abnormal eating attitudes: prevalance at a Canadian University. Can Fam Physician. 1988;34:75. - PMC - PubMed
  127.  
    1. Mazzaia MC, Santos RMC. Risk factors for eating disorders among undergraduate nursing students. Acta Paulista de Enfermagem. 2018;31:456–462. doi: 10.1590/1982-0194201800065. - DOI
  128.  
    1. Momeni M, Ghorbani A, Arjeini Z. Disordered eating attitudes among Iranian university students of medical sciences: the role of body image perception. Nutr Health. 2020;26(2):127–133. doi: 10.1177/0260106020912657. - DOI - PubMed
  129.  
    1. Ngan SW, et al. The relationship between eating disorders and stress among medical undergraduate: a cross-sectional study. Open J Epidemiol. 2017;7(02):85. doi: 10.4236/ojepi.2017.72008. - DOI
  130.  
    1. Nichols S, et al. Body image perception and the risk of unhealthy behaviours among university students. West Indian Med J. 2009;58(5):465–471. - PubMed
  131.  
    1. Padmanabhan V, Rahman MM, Fatima S. Prevalence of eating disorders in dental students of a Young University in UAE. Int J Sci Res. 2018;7(4):432–434.
  132.  
    1. Parra-Fernández ML, et al. Adaptation and validation of the Spanish version of the DOS questionnaire for the detection of orthorexic nervosa behavior. PLoS ONE. 2019;14(5):e0216583. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0216583. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  133.  
    1. Parreño-Madrigal IM, et al. Prevalence of risk of eating disorders and its association with obesity and fitness. Int J Sports Med. 2020;41(10):669–676. doi: 10.1055/a-1152-5064. - DOI - PubMed
  134.  
    1. Pereira LdNG, et al. Eating disorders among health science students at a university in southern Brazil. Revista de Psiquiatria do Rio Grande do Sul. 2011;33:14–19. doi: 10.1590/S0101-81082011005000002. - DOI
  135.  
    1. Pitanupong J, Jatchavala C. Atypical eating attitudes and behaviors in Thai medical students. Siriraj Med J. 2017;69(1):5–10.
  136.  
    1. Plichta M, Jezewska-Zychowicz M. Eating behaviors, attitudes toward health and eating, and symptoms of orthorexia nervosa among students. Appetite. 2019;137:114–123. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2019.02.022. - DOI - PubMed
  137.  
    1. Polanco PP, Zetina LMM. Study of the risk of having eating disorder habits in undergraduate and graduate students in Mexican institutions. ESPACIO I+ D, INNOVACIÓN MÁS DESARROLLO: p 54
  138.  
    1. Radwan H, et al. Eating disorders and body image concerns as influenced by family and media among university students in Sharjah, UAE. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2018;27(3):695–700. - PubMed
  139.  
    1. Ramaiah RR. (2015) Eating disorders among medical students of a rural teaching hospital: a cross-sectional study. Int J Community Med Public Health. 2015;2(1):25–28. doi: 10.5455/2394-6040.ijcmph20150206. - DOI
  140.  
    1. Rasman NSB, et al. Prevalence of eating disorders among medical students in Ipoh. Malaysia: Perak; 2018.
  141.  
    1. Rathner G, Rumpold G. Convergent validity of the eating disorder inventory and the anorexia nervosa inventory for self-rating in an Austrian nonclinical population. Int J Eat Disord. 1994;16(4):381–393. doi: 10.1002/1098-108X(199412)16:4<381::AID-EAT2260160407>3.0.CO;2-Q. - DOI - PubMed
  142.  
    1. Reyes-Rodríguez ML, et al. A description of disordered eating behaviors in Latino males. J Am Coll Health. 2011;59(4):266–272. doi: 10.1080/07448481.2010.502205. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  143.  
    1. Roshandel A, Safavi M, Ghasemi I. Prevalence of eating disorders among female students of university (Tehran-Iran) Life Sci J. 2012;9(4):2822–2828.
  144.  
    1. Rostad IS, Tyssen R, Løvseth LT. Symptoms of disturbed eating behavior risk: Gender and study factors in a cross-sectional study of two Norwegian medical schools. Eating Behav. 2021;43:101565. doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2021.101565. - DOI - PubMed
  145.  
    1. Safer M, et al. Eating disorders: prevalence and associated factors among health occupation students in Monastir University (Tunisia) Tunis Med. 2020;98(12):895–912. - PubMed
  146.  
    1. Saleh RN, et al. Disordered eating attitudes in female students of An-Najah National University: a cross-sectional study. J Eat Disord. 2018;6(1):1–6. doi: 10.1186/s40337-018-0204-4. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  147.  
    1. Sepulveda A, et al. Prevention program for disturbed eating and body dissatisfaction in a Spanish university population: a pilot study. Body Image. 2007;4(3):317–328. doi: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.05.001. - DOI - PubMed
  148.  
    1. Sharifian MJ, et al. Association between dental fear and eating disorders and Body Mass Index among Finnish university students: a national survey. BMC Oral Health. 2021;21(1):1–9. doi: 10.1186/s12903-021-01449-8. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  149.  
    1. Sharma M, et al. Body image perception, eating attitude and influence of media among undergraduate students of medical college in Delhi: a cross sectional study. Int J Res Med Sci. 2019;7(12):4627. doi: 10.18203/2320-6012.ijrms20195529. - DOI
  150.  
    1. Shashank K, Gowda P, Chethan T. A cross-sectional study to asses the eating disorder among female medical students in a rural medical college of Karnataka State. Natl J Community Med. 2016;7:524–527.
  151.  
    1. Spillebout A, et al. Mental health among university students with eating disorders and irritable bowel syndrome in France. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique. 2019;67(5):295–301. doi: 10.1016/j.respe.2019.04.056. - DOI - PubMed
  152.  
    1. Taha AAAE-A, Abu-Zaid HA, Desouky DE-S. Eating disorders among female students of Taif University, Saudi Arabia. Arch Iranian Med. 2018;21(3):111–117. - PubMed
  153.  
    1. Tavolacci MP, et al. Eating disorders and associated health risks among university students. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2015;47(5):412–420. doi: 10.1016/j.jneb.2015.06.009. - DOI - PubMed
  154.  
    1. Tavolacci M, et al. Changes and specificities in health behaviors among healthcare students over an 8-year period. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(3):e0194188. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194188. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  155.  
    1. Tavolacci M-P, Déchelotte P, Ladner J. Eating disorders among college students in France: characteristics, help-and care-seeking. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(16):5914. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17165914. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  156.  
    1. Thangaraju SI, et al. A cross-sectional study on prevalence of eating disorder and body image disturbance among female undergraduate medical students. J Ment Health Hum Behav. 2020;25(1):53. doi: 10.4103/jmhhb.jmhhb_13_20. - DOI
  157.  
    1. Túry F, et al. Eating disorder characteristics among Hungarian medical students: Changes between 1989 and 2011. J Behav Addict. 2021;9(4):1079–1087. doi: 10.1556/2006.2020.00078. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  158.  
    1. Uriegas NA, et al. Examination of eating disorder risk among university marching band artists. J Eat Disord. 2021;9(1):1–10. doi: 10.1186/s40337-021-00388-7. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  159.  
    1. Uzun Ö, et al. Screening disordered eating attitudes and eating disorders in a sample of Turkish female college students. Compr Psychiatry. 2006;47(2):123–126. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2005.05.004. - DOI - PubMed
  160.  
    1. Weigel A, et al. Eating pathology in medical students in Eastern Germany: comparison with general population and a sample at the time of the German reunification. Eat Weight Disord. 2016;21(3):445–451. doi: 10.1007/s40519-015-0237-5. - DOI - PubMed
  161.  
    1. Yoneda R, et al. Reliability and validity of the Japanese translation of the Eating Disorders Quality of Life (ED-QOL) scale for Japanese healthy female university undergraduate students and patients with eating disorders. BioPsychoSocial Med. 2020;14(1):1–7. doi: 10.1186/s13030-020-00189-5. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  162.  
    1. Yu J, et al. Prevalence of disordered eating attitudes among university students in Wuhu, China. Nutr Hosp. 2015;32(4):1752–1757. - PubMed
  163.  
    1. Zhou Y, Pennesi JL, Wade TD. Online imagery rescripting among young women at risk of developing an eating disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Eat Disord. 2020;53(12):1906–1917. doi: 10.1002/eat.23370. - DOI - PubMed
  164.  
    1. Wu XY, et al. The association between disordered eating and health-related quality of life among children and adolescents: a systematic review of population-based studies. PLoS ONE. 2019;14(10):e0222777. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0222777. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  165.  
    1. Treasure J, Russell G. The case for early intervention in anorexia nervosa: theoretical exploration of maintaining factors. Br J Psychiatry. 2011;199(1):5–7. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.110.087585. - DOI - PubMed
  166.  
    1. Romano KA, et al. Changes in the prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of eating disorder symptoms from 2013 to 2020 among a large national sample of U.S. young adults: a repeated cross-sectional study. Int J Eat Disord. 2022;55(6):776–789. doi: 10.1002/eat.23709. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  167.  
    1. Devoe J, D., , et al. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on eating disorders: a systematic review. Int J Eating Disord. 2022 doi: 10.1002/eat.23704. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  168.  
    1. Schneider J, et al. A mixed-studies systematic review of the experiences of body image, disordered eating, and eating disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic. Int J Eat Disord. 2022 doi: 10.1002/eat.23706. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  169.  
    1. Nagata JM, et al. Eating disorders in boys and men. Springer; 2021.
  170.  
    1. Murnen SK, Smolak L (2015) Gender and eating disorders. In: The Wiley handbook of eating disorders, Wiley, Uk, pp 352–366. 10.1002/9781118574089.ch27
  171.  
    1. Eaton DK, et al. Youth risk behavior surveillance—United States, 2011. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep Recomm Rep. 2012;61(4):1–162. - PubMed
  172.  
    1. Neumark-Sztainer D, et al. Weight-related concerns and behaviors among overweight and nonoverweight adolescents: implications for preventing weight-related disorders. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002;156(2):171–178. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.156.2.171. - DOI - PubMed
  173.  
    1. Neumark-Sztainer DR, et al. Shared risk and protective factors for overweight and disordered eating in adolescents. Am J Preventive Med. 2007;33(5):359–369. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2007.07.031. - DOI - PubMed
  174.  
    1. Yoon C, et al. Disordered eating behaviors and 15-year trajectories in body mass index: findings from project eating and activity in teens and young adults (EAT) J Adolesc Health. 2020;66(2):181–188. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.08.012. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  175.  
    1. Yao L, Niu G, Sun X. Body image comparisons on social networking sites and chinese female college students’ restrained eating: the roles of body shame, body appreciation, and body mass index. Sex Roles. 2021;84:465–476. doi: 10.1007/s11199-020-01179-1. - DOI
  176.  
    1. Zhang J, et al. The relationship between SNS usage and disordered eating behaviors: a meta-analysis. Front Psychol. 2021;12:641919. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.641919. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  177.  
    1. Rohde P, et al. Age effects in eating disorder baseline risk factors and prevention intervention effects. Int J Eat Disord. 2017;50(11):1273–1280. doi: 10.1002/eat.22775. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  178.  
    1. Hadjigeorgiou C, et al. Disordered eating in three different age groups in Cyprus: a comparative cross-sectional study. Public Health. 2018;162:104–110. doi: 10.1016/j.puhe.2018.05.024. - DOI - PubMed
  179.  
    1. Hong S-C, et al. Prevalence of distorted body image in young Koreans and its association with age, sex, body weight status, and disordered eating behaviors. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2015;11:1043. - PMC - PubMed
  180.  
    1. Garfinkel PE, Newman A. The eating attitudes test: twenty-five years later. Eat Weight Disord. 2001;6(1):1–24. doi: 10.1007/BF03339747. - DOI - PubMed
  181.  
    1. Morgan JF, Reid F, Lacey JH. The SCOFF questionnaire: assessment of a new screening tool for eating disorders. BMJ. 1999;319(7223):1467–1468. doi: 10.1136/bmj.319.7223.1467. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  182.  
    1. Vetrone G, et al. Screening for eating disorders: false negatives and eating disorders not otherwise specified. Eur J Psychiatry. 2006;20(1):13–20. doi: 10.4321/S0213-61632006000100002. - DOI
  183.  
    1. Becker CB, Stice E. From efficacy to effectiveness to broad implementation: Evolution of the Body Project. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2017;85(8):767–782. doi: 10.1037/ccp0000204. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  184.  
    1. Fichter MM, et al. Anorexia nervosa in Greek and Turkish adolescents. Eur Arch Psychiatry Neurol Sci. 1988;237(4):200–208. doi: 10.1007/BF00449908. - DOI - PubMed
  185.  
    1. Giuffrida JM. Improved Screening for Binge Eating Disorder in Primary Care. The University of North Carolina at Charlotte; 2020.
  186.  
    1. Herman BK, et al. Development of the 7-Item Binge-Eating Disorder Screener (BEDS-7) Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2016 doi: 10.4088/PCC.15m01896. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  187.  
    1. Van Strien T, et al. The Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ) for assessment of restrained, emotional, and external eating behavior. Int J Eat Disord. 1986;5(2):295–315. doi: 10.1002/1098-108X(198602)5:2<295::AID-EAT2260050209>3.0.CO;2-T. - DOI
  188.  
    1. Mond JM, et al. Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q): norms for young adult women. Behav Res Ther. 2006;44(1):53–62. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2004.12.003. - DOI - PubMed
  189.  
    1. Mond JM, et al. Validity of the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) in screening for eating disorders in community samples. Behav Res Ther. 2004;42(5):551–567. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00161-X. - DOI - PubMed
  190.  
    1. Parra-Fernandez ML, et al. Adaptation and validation of the Spanish version of the ORTO-15 questionnaire for the diagnosis of orthorexia nervosa. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(1):e0190722. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0190722. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  191.  
    1. Roncero M, Barrada JR, Perpiñá C. Measuring orthorexia nervosa: psychometric limitations of the ORTO-15. Span J Psychol. 2017;20:E41. doi: 10.1017/sjp.2017.36. - DOI - PubMed
  192.  
    1. Davison KK, Markey CN, Birch LL. A longitudinal examination of patterns in girls' weight concerns and body dissatisfaction from ages 5 to 9 years. Int J Eat Disord. 2003;33(3):320–332. doi: 10.1002/eat.10142. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  193.  
    1. Silva WRD, et al. Body weight concerns: cross-national study and identification of factors related to eating disorders. PLoS ONE. 2017;12(7):e0180125. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180125. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  194.  
    1. Fichter MM, Keeser W. Das Anorexia-nervosa-Inventar zur Selbstbeurteilung (ANIS) Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr. 1980;228(1):67–89. doi: 10.1007/BF00365746. - DOI - PubMed
  195.  
    1. Garner DM, Garfinkel PE. The Eating Attitudes Test: an index of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa. Psychol Med. 1979;9(2):273–279. doi: 10.1017/S0033291700030762. - DOI - PubMed
  196.  
    1. Stice E, Telch CF, Rizvi SL. Development and validation of the Eating Disorder Diagnostic Scale: a brief self-report measure of anorexia, bulimia, and binge-eating disorder. Psychol Assess. 2000;12(2):123–131. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.12.2.123. - DOI - PubMed
  197.  
    1. Fairburn CG, Beglin SJ (2008) Eating disorder examination questionnaire. Cognitive behavior therapy and eating disorders, pp 309–313
  198.  
    1. Garner DM, Olmstead MP, Polivy J. Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. Int J Eat Disord. 1983;2(2):15–34. doi: 10.1002/1098-108X(198321)2:2<15::AID-EAT2260020203>3.0.CO;2-6. - DOI
  199.  
    1. Garner DM, et al. The eating attitudes test: psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychol Med. 1982;12(4):871–878. doi: 10.1017/S0033291700049163. - DOI - PubMed
  200.  
    1. Rosenvinge JH, et al. A new instrument measuring disturbed eating patterns in community populations: development and initial validation of a five-item scale (EDS-5) Eur Eating Disord Rev. 2001;9(2):123–132. doi: 10.1002/erv.371. - DOI
  201.  
    1. Donini LM, et al. Orthorexia nervosa: a preliminary study with a proposal for diagnosis and an attempt to measure the dimension of the phenomenon. Eat Weight Disord. 2004;9(2):151–157. doi: 10.1007/BF03325060. - DOI - PubMed
  202.  
    1. Mintz LB, et al. Questionnaire for eating disorder diagnoses: reliability and validity of operationalizing DSM—IV criteria into a self-report format. J Couns Psychol. 1997;44(1):63. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.44.1.63. - DOI
  203.  
    1. Morgan JF, Reid F, Lacey JH. The SCOFF questionnaire. Western J Med. 2000;172(3):164. doi: 10.1136/ewjm.172.3.164. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
  204.  
    1. Killen JD, et al. Pursuit of thinness and onset of eating disorder symptoms in a community sample of adolescent girls: a three-year prospective analysis. Int J Eat Disord. 1994;16(3):227–238. doi: 10.1002/1098-108X(199411)16:3<227::AID-EAT2260160303>3.0.CO;2-L. - DOI - PubMed

Page Navigation